Machined surface integrity — residual stress from machining (tensile vs. compressive), white layer formation (hardened steels), microstructural alterations (HAZ, phase transformation), work hardening (microhardness depth profile), surface roughness from machining (Ra, Rz, RSm, Rsk, Rku), cutting parameters effect on surface (feed rate, depth of cut, tool geometry), chip formation and BUE, built-up edge, tool wear effects, and CIRP recommendations for hard turning and milling.
